The spinal cord is typically divided into segments and labeled based on its position relative to the corresponding vertebrae.
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal cord and are named based on the level of the spinal cord from which they originate. The spinal cord is divided into four regions, each with a different number of spinal segments:
Cervical region: This is the uppermost region of the spinal cord, consisting of 8 spinal segments (C1-C8).
Thoracic region: This region is located in the middle of the spinal cord and consists of 12 spinal segments (T1-T12).
Lumbar region: This region is located in the lower back and consists of 5 spinal segments (L1-L5).
Sacral region: This is the lowest region of the spinal cord, consisting of 5 fused segments (S1-S5).
In addition to these four regions, there is also a coccygeal region, which consists of 1-2 spinal segments that form the coccyx or tailbone. Overall, the spinal cord is labeled based on its location and the segments that correspond to each region.
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which of these is not part of the interpretation phase of the perception process?
Salience is not a component of the perception process' interpretation stage. information from a particular scenario or stimuli that grabs a person's attention.
A salience example: what is it?A crucial low-level cognitive function that enables situational awareness is salience. The ability to swiftly focus on important objects like people, bicycles, vehicles, and traffic signals from a fast-moving stream of visual information is demonstrated by a motorist traveling at 40 mph.
What does psychology's salience mean?
Salience is a term used to indicate something's emotional impact or prominence. An element is salient if it stands out from its surroundings. It is not if it is difficult to locate and fades into the backdrop.
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Opioids utilize the same receptors in the brain as A. serotonin. B. endorphins. C. dopamine. D. norepinephrine
The same synapses in the brain that endorphins use are also used by opioids.
Your body releases endorphins as chemicals (hormones) in response to pain or stress. They are also released during enjoyable activities like sex, eating, massages, and exercise. Your sense of wellbeing is enhanced and pain is relieved by endorphins.
Endorphins are chemical messengers in the brain that block the impression of pain and elevate feelings of well-being (contracted from endogenous morphine). They are created and kept in the pituitary gland, a region of the brain.
Opioids are a group of drugs that includes heroin, which is illegal, as well as fentanyl, oxycodone (OxyContin), hydromorphone (Vicodin), codeine, dilaudid, and many other painkillers that are legal and can be obtained with a prescription.
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What is protrusion of the meninges?
Protrusion of the meninges is a medical condition known as a meningocele. The meninges are the protective layers of tissue that cover the brain and spinal cord,
Meningocele occurs when these layers protrude through an opening or defect in the skull or spine. Meningoceles can be congenital, meaning they are present at birth, or they can develop later in life due to injury or disease. Congenital meningoceles are typically diagnosed during a prenatal ultrasound or shortly after birth.
Meningoceles can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the location and size of the protrusion. In some cases, they may cause no symptoms at all. In other cases, they may cause neurological symptoms such as headaches, seizures, or muscle weakness.
Treatment for meningocele typically involves surgical repair to close the opening or defect and reposition the meninges back into their proper position. The prognosis for individuals with meningocele depends on the severity of the condition and the presence of any associated neurological deficits.
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explain why a slow growing forest can have a very low npp and yet store a massive amount of biomass (have a high standing crop).
Slow-growing forests can have a low net primary production (NPP) yet store a large amount of biomass because of their slow growth rate.
This is due to the fact that slower-growing forests have a higher likelihood of accumulating biomass over a longer period of time since less biomass is lost to breakdown and other processes.
Although carbon is released into the atmosphere more slowly in slow-growing forests, there is a tendency for these forests to have larger carbon concentrations in their biomass.
Because of this, forests can store more biomass even when their rates of growth and photosynthesis are low.
As for their higher biomass and carbon storage, slow-growing forests also tend to be more resistant to disturbances like wildfires or insect infestations. As a result, despite having a low NPP, they may store a lot of biomass.
Complete Question:
Why can a slow-growing forest have a very low net primary production (NPP) yet store a large amount of biomass (have a high standing crop)?
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You made a wet mount slide of each blood/solution mixture when testing for tonicity. What did you learn from this?
a Both opaque tubes contained completely normal-looking blood cells.
b The difference in tonicity did not affect the red blood cells at all.
c Temperature had a significant effect on the red blood cells.
d The red blood cells were too small to block light.
e In the tube with the highest concentration of solutes, the cells had shriveled (crenated).
The correct answer is Option (e), which states that in the tube with the highest concentration of solutes, the red blood cells had shriveled (crenated).
This indicates that the solution in the tube was hypertonic, and water from the cells moved out, causing them to shrink and shrivel. The other options do not provide information related to the effect of tonicity on red blood cells. A hypertonic solution refers to a solution that has a higher concentration of solutes compared to another solution, usually separated by a semipermeable membrane.
When a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water will move out of the cell and into the surrounding solution, causing the cell to shrink and become crenated. This is because the concentration of solutes in the extracellular fluid is higher than that inside the cell, leading to a net movement of water from an area of high concentration (inside the cell) to an area of low concentration (outside the cell). That means, hypertonic solutions have a higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water, which can cause cells to shrink and become dehydrated.
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what is the name of the blood cell responsible for blood clotting?
Platelets a blood cell is responsible for blood clotting.
Blood clotting You can halt bleeding by using platelets, which are microscopic blood cells. The platelets get signals when a blood vessel is injured. In order to repair the damage, the platelets then hastily go to the area of injury and form a plug (clot).Adhesion is the term for the action of spreading across a blood vessel's surface to halt bleeding. This is so that they can stick (adhere) to one another when they reach the wounded site when they develop sticky tentacles. To draw in additional platelets, they also emit chemical signals. In a process referred to as aggregation, more platelets accumulate on top of the clot.For more information on platelets kindly visit to
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which groups (may be more than one) are organisms found under the major clade bilateria?
The main group of organisms found under the major clade Bilateria are the Protostomes and Deuterostomes.
Protostomes are creatures that grow from an embryonic entrance called the blastopore, which becomes the mouth, whereas deuterostomes originate from a separate embryonic opening called the blastopore, which becomes the anus.
Bilateral symmetry, or having a three-dimensional form where the left and right half of the body are mirror images, is what sets apart both of these groupings. Mollusks, arthropods, and annelids are examples of protostomes; echinoderms, chordates, and hemichordates are examples of deuterostomes.
Moreover, during embryonic development, deuterostomes have a radial cleavage pattern, whereas protostomes have a spiral cleavage pattern.
The taxonomic category Xenacoelomorpha, which consists of animals with body plans that fall between between protostomes and deuterostomes, and the group Acoelomorpha, which consists of creatures with straightforward body plans devoid of a body cavity, are also included in the genus Bilateria.
The existence of a head and tail and bilateral symmetry characterise all of these species.
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Please help.
How do "gliders" travel on water? Use the terms hydrogen bonding, surface tension, adhesion, and cohesion in your answer
"Gliders" are small insects that are capable of traveling on water due to a combination of physical phenomena involving hydrogen bonding, surface tension, adhesion, and cohesion.
Surface tension is a liquid property caused by the cohesive forces between liquid molecules. Because of hydrogen bonding, water molecules are strongly attracted to one another, resulting in a high surface tension of water. This high surface tension forms a thin, elastic film on the water's surface, allowing small objects like insects to float on it.
Adhesion refers to the attraction of molecules of different substances. Gliders, for example, have specialised hydrophobic (water-repellent) structures on their legs that prevent them from breaking the surface tension of water and sinking. The hydrophobic structures on the insects' legs repel water and adhere to surface tension, allowing the insects to stay on the surface.
The attractive forces between molecules of the same substance are referred to as cohesion. Water molecules' cohesive forces form a surface film that is strong enough to support the weight of small objects like gliders. Insects that travel on water, such as gliders, can distribute their weight over a large area by increasing the contact area with the water's surface with their hydrophobic legs. This reduces the pressure on the water's surface tension, allowing the insects to float on top.
In summary, gliders travel on water due to the combination of hydrogen bonding, surface tension, adhesion, and cohesion. The hydrophobic structures on the insects' legs repel water and adhere to the surface tension of water, allowing the insects to remain on the surface. The cohesive forces between water molecules create a surface film that is strong enough to support the weight of the insects, allowing them to float on the surface.
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at which catabolic step is the greatest quantity of atp produced?
The catabolic step that is the greatest quantity of ATP produced is oxidative phosphorylation. The correct option is A.
What is oxidative phosphorylation?Cells use enzymes to oxidise foods in the metabolic pathway known as oxidative phosphorylation, electron transport-linked phosphorylation, or terminal oxidation, which releases chemical energy to create adenosine triphosphate. This happens inside mitochondria in eukaryotes.
The majority of the ATP required for higher animals and plants to sustain life is produced by oxidative phosphorylation, which is also in charge of establishing and preserving metabolic equilibrium.
Thus, the correct option is A.
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Your question seems incomplete, the probable complete question is:
At which catabolic step is the greatest quantity of ATP produced?
A) oxidative phosphorylation
B) citric acid cycle
C) glycolysis
D) pyruvate oxidation
the testes contain spermatogonial cells that divide by ____________ to produce two cells; one remains a spermatogonial cell, and the other becomes a ____________
the testes contain spermatogonial cells that divide by Mitosis to produce two cells; one remains a spermatogonial cell, and the other becomes a spermatocyte.
Mitosis is a kind of cell division that divides a single parent cell into two identical daughter cells. The body's tissues must go through mitosis in order to develop and repair. In both single-celled and multi-celled species, reproduction depends on it as well.During spermatogenesis, the spermatogonial cells divide by mitosis to produce two cells - one that remains a spermatogonial cell and the other that becomes a spermatocyte. The spermatocyte, in turn, will then proceed through meiosis to produce haploid spermatids.
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a researcher may use a blanket authorization for all research purposes?
An IRB has authorized a waiver of authorization for hiring. It is not acceptable to obtain a general research authorization for recruiting purposes.
A patient cannot be asked to sign a form authorizing a researcher (or anybody else) to contact them about undetermined future studies, as a result. An authorization is a comprehensive document that grants covered entities permission to use protected health information for specific purposes that are typically not related to treatment, payment, or health care operations or to disclose protected health information to a third party that the individual specifies.
With the exception of disclosures connected to the TPO (Treatment, Payment, Operations) of the entity in charge of the PHI or under certain circumstances, PHI disclosures under HIPAA require a special permission.
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In the cardiovascular system what vessels are the site of nutrient, gas and waste Exchange?
The site of nutrient, gas, and waste exchange in the cardiovascular system occurs at the capillaries.
Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body and their thin walls allow for the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and waste products between the bloodstream and surrounding tissues. This exchange is facilitated by the pressure difference between the capillaries and the surrounding tissues, as well as by the diffusion of substances across the capillary walls. The capillaries are also responsible for regulating blood flow to the tissues, by controlling the diameter of the vessels through the action of smooth muscle cells in the vessel walls. Overall, the capillaries play a crucial role in maintaining the proper functioning of the cardiovascular system and the health of the body's tissues.
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An inoculated thioglycolate medium culture tube shows dense growth at the surface and turbidity throughout the rest of the tube. What is your conclusion?
A. The organisms die in the presence of oxygen
B. The organisms are facultative anaerobes.
C. The organisms should be grown in an anaerobic chamber.
D. The organisms are obligate aerobes.
The most likely inference from the observation is that the organisms are facultative anaerobes.
What is Facultative anaerobes?Anaerobes that can grow and survive both with and without oxygen are referred to as facultative anaerobes. Facultative anaerobes in a thioglycolate medium growth tube will consume the oxygen at the surface of the tube before switching to fermentation or anaerobic respiration to continue growing inside the tube. As a result, the surface develops thick growth, while the remainder of the tube becomes muddy.
Given the appearance of development near the tube's surface, Option A that the organisms perish in oxygen seems doubtful. If the organisms were obligate anaerobes, Option C that they should be grown in an anaerobic chamber might be accurate, but there is no evidence to support this claim. Given the discovery of development in the lower oxygen areas of the tube, Option D that the organisms are obligate aerobes is likewise doubtful.
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What is the secondary order of protein structure?
The secondary structure of a protein refers to the local folding patterns that result from hydrogen bonding between the peptide backbone atoms.
The two main types of secondary structure are alpha helices and beta sheets. The secondary structure of a protein is the second level of organization in the protein structure hierarchy, following the primary structure (the linear sequence of amino acids).
The primary structure determines the sequence of the amino acids that make up the protein, while the secondary structure describes the local spatial arrangement of the backbone atoms.
Other structures such as tertiary and quaternary structures are higher levels of organization in the protein structure hierarchy, describing the folding and arrangement of the entire protein molecule.
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what are the possible gamete types that can be produced from a parent who is rryy? meiosis produces eggs and sperm that are alike.
YR, Yr, yR, and yr are the possible gamete types that can be produced from a parent who is rryy.
What is gamete?A gamete is a plant or animal's reproductive cell. Male gametes in animals are known as sperm, while female gametes are known as ova or egg cells. Each ova and sperm cell has one copy of each chromosome, making them haploid cells. A new diploid creature is created during fertilisation when a sperm and an ovum combine. In sexually reproducing organisms, fertilisation is the gamete's only or major function. A female gamete (egg/oocyte) and a male gamete (sperm/spermatozoa) combine during fertilisation. A germ cell undergoes two fissions during the process of meiosis (reduction division), which produces four gametes as a consequence.
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The complete question is as follows:
What are the possible gamete types that can be produced from a parent who is YyRr? Meiosis produces eggs and sperm that are alike.
a. All YR
b. All Yr
c. YR, Yr, yR, and yr
d. Half YR and half yr
which finding is typical of chronic glomerulonephritis
Chronic glomerulonephritis is a chronic kidney disease characterized by inflammation and damage to the glomeruli, which are the tiny filters in the kidneys that help filter waste from the blood.
The most common finding in chronic glomerulonephritis is a decrease in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) due to the decreased number of functioning glomeruli. Other typical findings include proteinuria, hematuria, and hypertension. Proteinuria is an increased amount of protein in the urine, hematuria is the presence of red blood cells in the urine, and hypertension is an increased blood pressure. These findings can be further confirmed by a biopsy of the kidney, which may show evidence of inflammation and scarring of the glomeruli.
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What limits the amount of work that a system can do?
The amount of work that a system can do is limited by the change in entropy.
What is entropy?The amount of thermal energy per unit of temperature in a system that cannot be used for productive work is known as entropy. Entropy is a measure of a system's molecular disorder or unpredictability since work is produced by organized molecular motion.
Entropy increases with increasing temperature. Systems that emit less heat will be able to accomplish more work than systems that emit more heat.
Thus, the amount of work that a system can do is limited by the change in entropy.
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Which of the following evolutionary innovation(s) of seed plants enabled them to outcompete ferns and other seedless plants that dominated through the end of the Carboniferous period?A.A photosynthetic sporophyte. B.reduced, dependent gametophytes. C.vascular systems. D.flowers
Option B, Due to their fewer, more dependent gametophytes, seed plants were able to outcompete ferns and other seedless plants that dominated at the end of the Carboniferous epoch.
During the alternation of the life cycle of the generation, all land plants reproduce. Both the haploid and the diploid phases of an organism are multicellular; in the order of the life cycle, the sporophyte, a multicellular diploid form, comes after the gametophyte.
In order to manufacture gametes, the gametophyte goes through mitosis (reproductive cells). In mosses, this stage of the plant's life cycle is the most obvious, but in vascular plants, it can occur in a tiny structure like a pollen particle.
A gametophyte is the fern that comes to mind when you think of Indiana Jones or a forest floor. The attractive leaves have fringes and are haploid, which means they only contain one pair of chromosomes. They undergo mitosis to create sex cells, just like other gametophyte plants.
The majority of bryophytes are in the gametophyte stage of development. The antheridia, archegonia, etc. of the gametophyte create the male and female gametes. The culmination of all these components is Gametangia.
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What are the macroscopic structures, which point into the lumen (white), called?
a) Microvilli
b) Villi
c) Crypt
d) Lymphocyte
The villi reached into the small intestine's lumen like an anemone's wagging tentacles. The villi roughly 50 times increase the small intestine's surface area.
Which macroscopic elements protrude into the lumen?The many finger-like projections, or villi, that protrude into the intestinal lumen (space), impede the transit of food and increase the surface area available for nutritional absorption. The mucosa, a tissue layer made up of straightforward columnar epithelial cells, lines these villi.
What exactly are the macro structures?Without the aid of a microscope, the structure of the body and its components are studied. In macroscopic anatomy, relatively large structures are examined and features usually visible with the unaided eye.
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True or False: capillary bulk flow is so efficient that less than 1% of the water filtered into the tissues at the start of a capillary bed is reabsorbed at the end of the capillary bed.
The given statement "capillary bulk flow is so efficient that less than 1% of the water filtered into the tissues at the start of a capillary bed is reabsorbed at the end of the capillary bed" is false because Capillary bulk flow is the movement of fluid between the blood and the interstitial space due to a pressure gradient.
It is an important process for maintaining proper fluid balance in the body. However, not all of the fluid that is filtered out of the blood at the start of a capillary bed is reabsorbed at the end. Some of the excess fluid is reabsorbed into the lymphatic vessels, which return it to the bloodstream.
The amount of fluid reabsorbed depends on a variety of factors, including the pressure gradients, the permeability of the capillary walls, and the presence of lymphatic vessels. In general, the efficiency of capillary bulk flow varies depending on the tissues and organs involved, and less than 1% reabsorption is not a universal phenomenon.
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why are the oxygen levels of the pulmonary arteries and veins opposite other arteries and veins?
Due to the fact that pulmonary arteries and veins transport blood from the lungs, their oxygen levels are different from those of other arteries and veins.
Blood that is oxygenated only exists in the pulmonary veins of your body. You have oxygen-poor blood in your other veins. Your pulmonary arteries are the only ones that carry low-oxygen blood, similarly. Blood that is high in oxygen level is carried by all of your remaining arteries. You can observe that your body has a distinct pulmonary circuit! The types of blood that each vessel in this circuit carries are generally the rule, with the exception of your blood vessels.
But, one thing remains the same. That direction is the way. The pulmonary veins carry blood from your body's other veins to the heart. Also, your pulmonary arteries carry blood away from your heart in the same manner as all of your other arteries do.
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what is the average respiration rate, in breaths per minute, for cattle? A. 15-40 B. 50 - 90 C. 100-140
The average respiration rate for cattle is 15-40 breaths per minute. So the correct option is Option A.
We can assess the respiration rate of the cattle by watching it's ribs. Then we gave to count the number of times they move in and out in respiration in 15 seconds and we can get the number by multiplication with 4. The respiratory rate of the cattle may vary with the ambient temperature and if the cattle is in stressed condition. But the adult cattle's respiratory rate should be between 26 and 50 breaths per minute.
They have a heart rate of 48 and 84 beats per minute.
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Erosion control is most difficult to control in what type of growing environment?
A.
PNP
B.
Container
C.
Field-grown
D.
Cold frame
Answer: C. Field-grown environments.
Explanation: Field-grown environments refer to crops that are planted directly in the ground, exposed to the natural elements and topography of the surrounding land. These areas can be more susceptible to soil erosion due to factors such as slope, runoff, and lack of ground cover. Additionally, the continuous tillage and other land management practices in field-grown environments can lead to soil compaction and reduced water infiltration, further increasing the risk of erosion.
Therefore, it can be more challenging to control erosion in field-grown environments compared to other growing environments such as container or greenhouse production where growing media is often contained and not exposed to the same natural elements.
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Answer:
Option C.
Explanation:
When the earth is exposed to high winds, heavy rains, and moving water, soil erosion typically takes place. Certain human activities, like farming and clearing land, make the soil more prone to erosion. For instance, farmers may leave the soil exposed to the elements for weeks or months when they till (plough) the soil before or after cultivating a season of crops. Overgrazing by livestock like sheep and cattle may also strip enormous tracts of land of the ground-covering vegetation that would otherwise keep the soil in place. Deforestation, particularly clearcutting, which is the pervasive practice of the industrial logging sector, has detrimental effects on soil health. When trees are cut down, the soil is left exposed to the elements without the protection of roots to keep the soil from being washed away by wind and rain. Crops that are planted directly in the ground and left out in the open to be affected by the weather and terrain of the surrounding area are known as field-grown settings. The slope, drainage, and lack of ground cover in certain regions may make them more prone to soil erosion. However, in contexts where crops are produced in fields, continual tillage and other land management techniques may result in soil compaction and reduced water penetration, raising the risk of erosion. As growth material is frequently confined and not exposed to the same natural factors during container or greenhouse production, it might be more difficult to manage erosion in field-grown situations.
when the aortic semiluinar valve closes and blood bounces off of it it produces the
The right heart creates a sound called "dup," which is then associated with windy, when the cerebral a millionaire valve closes and blood bounces off of it.
The "dub" sound is made when the ventricles relax, dropping blood pressure below that in the artery, causing the aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves to close.
The semilunar valves, which are connected structures that resemble pockets, are where the pulmonary artery and aorta exit the ventricles. The pulmonary valve prevents blood from flowing across the gap between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery. The aortic valve closes the opening of the left ventricle.
The well-known "lub-dub" heartbeat sound is produced by the rhythmic closing of the heart valves as blood is pushed into and out of the chambers.
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a chromosomal mutation that reverses the direction of parts of a chromosome ___
Answer:
An inversion occurs when a chromosome breaks in two places; the resulting piece of DNA is reversed and re-inserted into the chromosome
Explanation:
bacteria and fungi fulfill which role in an ecosystem?
Answer:
Bacteria and fungi feed on dead and decaying organic matter and convert complex organic molecules into simple ones. Thus, they perform the role of decomposers.
Explanation:
what type of molecule is an enzyme?
Enzymes are protein molecules.Enzymes are proteins that act upon substrate molecules and decrease the activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur by stabilizing the transition state.
The enzyme is made up of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Enzymes are nothing but protein molecules made up of a long chain of amino acids. These long chains of amino acids are folded into a unique shape which helps enzymes to do their functions. Enzymes are biological molecules that speed up the process of any reaction virtually that takes place within the cells. Enzymes are mainly globular proteins. These are protein molecules where the tertiary structure has given the molecule a generally rounded, ball shape (although perhaps a very squashed ball in some cases). The other type of proteins (fibrous proteins) have long thin structures and are found in tissues like muscle and hair.
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Which of the following processes are types of post-translational protein modification?
a. phosphorylation
b. glycosylation
c. histone reorganization
d. ubiquitination
e. deamination
Processes are a sort of post-translational protein modification, hence among the following, phosphorylation, glycosylation, and ubiquitination are the proper choices.
What is phosphorylation with ATP?By means of chemiosmosis, oxidative phosphorylation generates ATP using energy from the movement of electrons in an electron transport system. Only one proton (H+) and one electron are present in a hydrogen atom. Potential energy, or stored energy, is available to do work in electrons. A glucose molecule needs two ATP molecules to be completely phosphorylated. When glucose is phosphorylated to fructose 1,6-diphosphate in glycolysis, two molecules of ATP are used up.
What process is phosphorylation?Phosphorylation is a biological procedure in which phosphate is added to an organic molecule. As two examples, phosphate can be added to glucose to create glucose monophosphate or to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to create adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
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the part of the human microbiome that includes all of the viruses that are associated with the body is called the human_______
The part of the human microbiome that includes all of the viruses that are associated with the body is called the human virome.
What is microbiome?A microbiome is a collection of microbial organisms that live on or in the human body. This includes bacteria, fungi, and viruses. It is estimated that the human body contains over 100 trillion microbial cells, with the majority of them being bacteria. The microbiome plays a vital role in human health, and disruptions to the microbiome have been linked to a variety of health conditions. The microbiome also influences the body's immune system, metabolism, and digestion. It is an essential part of human health and is just beginning to be studied and understood.
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Which of the following actions would affect the secondary, but not primary, structure of a protein?
A. Break the ionic bonds between amino acids
B. Change the sequence of amino acids
C. Break the hydrogen bonds between amino acids
D. Disrupt the interactions between two different polypeptide chains
Amino acid hydrogen bonds are broken. This is because hydrogen bonds largely stabilize proteins' secondary structure.
What influences proteins' secondary structure?Electrostatic forces, hydrogen bonding forces, hydrophobic forces, and disulfide bonds are the primary forces that have an impact on structure. The structure of proteins is affected differently by each of these. When two charges that are similar to one another repel each other or attract each other, these are the electrostatic forces.
Which of the following does not affect a protein's primary structure?Therefore, genetic changes have an effect on the primary structure. The weak inter and intramolecular secondary linkages are affected by temperature rise and pH fall, but the primary structure of proteins and peptide bonds are unaffected.
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